Purpose.

This FOA issued by National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, solicits Exploratory/Developmental Grant (R21) applications from institutions/ organizations that propose to investigate brain processes in humans underlying how aversive events control behavior in order

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to stimulate a program of clinical neuroscience research on negative reinforcement / avoidance learning.On the basis of pre-clinical studies, negative reinforcement has re-emerged as a contributing factor in the basic processes of substance abuse.The range of processes engaged by the human brain to avoid aversive outcomes are much less well understood than that of brain processes engaged by positive outcomes.

For the purpose of this FOA negative reinforcement and avoidance learning are considered synonymous and refer to behaviors and cognitive strategies that are learned and maintained in order to minimize or eliminate the occurrence of aversive events.

Aversive events may be either environmental stimuli or internal states.

Applications for this FOA are expected to propose exploratory, hypotheses-generating or proof of concept studies regarding the brain regions or processes in humans that underlie avoidance learning including behaviors and cognitive strategies maintained by negative reinforcement.

This FOA is also appropriate for the development of new tasks in humans that may be used in future brain imaging studies to target specific brain processing areas affected by negative reinforcement/avoidance learning.

The studies proposed in response to this FOA may be conducted in healthy individuals, substance-abusing populations (current or abstinent) or individuals at risk for substance abuse.However, all applications must address how the proposed investigations are relevant to advancing the understanding of substance abuse.